CPT treatment activated Tel1 in mutants more strongly than in wild-type cells. ends. INTRODUCTION Double-strand DNA breaks (DSBs) are deleterious DNA lesions that threaten genomic integrity if not precisely repaired. DSBs are induced not only by exogenous DNA-damaging agents but also during physiological cellular processes such as meiosis, lymphoid differentiation, and DNA replication. All organisms respond to DSBs by promptly launching the DNA damage response, which consists Ritanserin of checkpoint signaling and DNA repair (22, 82). Cells possess two principal pathways for DSB repair: homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) (21). NHEJ rejoins DNA ends in the absence of significant homology (11, 36), whereas HR rejoins DSBs using a homologous donor sequence as a template (30). The Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 (MRN) complex, which corresponds to the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) complex in budding yeast, plays a key role in both the HR and NHEJ pathways (13, 20, 58, 78). An early step in HR involves the generation of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), followed by invasion of the template strand and DNA synthesis. To create ssDNA tracts at DSB ends, the MRN/MRX complex collaborates with several factors, including Sae2/Ctp1/CtIP, Dna2 nuclease, Sgs1/BLM helicase, and Exo1 exonuclease (18, 33, 37, 44, 60, 83). Studies of budding yeast have proposed the model in which MRX and Sae2 act on DSBs at an earlier step than Sgs1, Dna2, and Exo1 (18, 44, 83). MRN/MRX is involved not only in generating ssDNA tracts but Ritanserin also in removing DNA-protein cross-links from DNA ends. The topoisomerase-like protein Spo11 becomes covalently bound to the 5 end of the DNA during meiotic DSB formation (28). MRX/MRN and Sae2/Ctp1 are involved in the removal of Spo11/Rec12 from 5 ends in budding and fission yeasts (23, Ritanserin 29, 43, 49, 59). The fission yeast MRN complex contributes to the removal of topoisomerase II from 5 ends as well as to the removal of topoisomerase I (Top1) from 3 ends (24). The checkpoint response that is activated by DSBs depends on the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase related protein kinases ATM and ATR (22, 82). Whereas ATR regulates checkpoint activation after various types of DNA damage, ATM responds specifically to DSBs. In budding yeast, homologs of ATM Cbll1 and ATR are encoded by and mutation enhances Tel1-mediated Rad53 activation after DNA damage, and this enhancement requires MRX function (71). Mutations of delay MRX delocalization from damaged sites, suggesting that unprocessed DNA damage accumulates in mutants (9). However, how Sae2-dependent damage processing regulates Tel1 catalytic activity has not been investigated yet. In this study, we have investigated the activation mechanism of the ATM-related Tel1 protein in budding yeast. We show that MRX is the DSB sensor that increases Tel1 catalytic activity. or nuclease-defective mutants when proteins are covalently attached to chromosomal DNA. strain was constructed as follows. The mutant, containing the H125L and D126V substitutions (7), was cloned Ritanserin into a or mutation has been described previously (46, 47). Deletion mutations were obtained by PCR-based methods (26, 46). YCpT-Rad9-HA was constructed by transferring the RAD9-HA construct from YIp-RAD9-HA (45). The pGAL-FLAG-TEL1-KN plasmid was created from pGAL-FLAG-TEL1 by replacing the NheI-SalI fragment with that from YEp-TEL1-KN-HA (47). The pGAL-EcoRI plasmid (YCp50 carrying GAL-EcoRI) was obtained from M. Resnick (34). Other plasmids have been described elsewhere (26, Ritanserin 46). Protein purification. The Mre11, Rad50, and Xrs2 proteins were individually purified and assembled into the heterotrimer MRX complex as described previously (8). The Flag-Tel1 or Flag-Tel1-KN protein was purified from mutants carrying pGAL-FLAG-TEL1 or pGAL-FLAG-TEL1-KN, respectively (26). GST-Rad53 proteins were expressed in and were purified from extracts as described previously (47). DNA substrates. The unmodified 150-bp DNA fragment (N) was prepared by PCR with the KSX001-KSX002 primer set using pUC19 as.